Esempi di File System: UNIX. Blocks and Fragments. Blocks and Fragments (Cont.) The UNIX file system supports two main objects: files and directories.

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1 Esempi di File System: UNIX The UNIX file system supports two main objects: files and directories. Directories are just files with a special format, so the representation of a file is the basic UNIX concept. A.1 Blocks and Fragments Most of the file system is taken up by data blocks. 4.2BSD uses two block sized for files which have no indirect blocks: All the blocks of a file are of a large block size (such as 8K), except the last. The last block is an appropriate multiple of a smaller fragment size (i.e., 1024) to fill out the file. Thus, a file of size 18,000 bytes would have two 8K blocks and one 2K fragment (which would not be filled completely). A.2 Blocks and Fragments (Cont.) The block and fragment sizes are set during file-system creation according to the intended use of the file system: If many small files are expected, the fragment size should be small. If repeated transfers of large files are expected, the basic block size should be large. The maximum block-to-fragment ratio is 8 : 1; the minimum block size is 4K (typical choices are 4096 : 512 and 8192 : 1024). A.3 1

2 Inodes A file is represented by an inode a record that stores information about a specific file on the disk. The inode also contains 15 pointer to the disk blocks containing the file s data contents. First 12 point to direct blocks. Next three point to indirect blocks First indirect block pointer is the address of a single indirect block an index block containing the addresses of blocks that do contain data. Second is a double-indirect-block pointer, the address of a block that contains the addresses of blocks that contain pointer to the actual data blocks. A triple indirect pointer is not needed; files with as many as 232 bytes will use only double indirection. A.4 Struttura di un I-node A.5 Directories The inode type field distinguishes between plain files and directories. Directory entries are of variable length; each entry contains first the length of the entry, then the file name and the inode number. The user refers to a file by a path name,whereas the file system uses the inode as its definition of a file. The kernel has to map the supplied user path name to an inode Directories are used for this mapping. A.6 2

3 Directories (Cont.) First determine the starting directory: If the first character is /, the starting directory is the root directory. For any other starting character, the starting directory is the current directory. The search process continues until the end of the path name is reached and the desired inode is returned. Once the inode is found, a file structure is allocated to point to the inode. 4.3BSD improved file system performance by adding a directory name cache to hold recent directory-to-inode translations. A.7 Mapping of a File Descriptor to an Inode System calls that refer to open files indicate the file is passing a file descriptor as an argument. The file descriptor is used by the kernel to index a table of open files for the current process. Each entry of the table contains a pointer to a file structure. This file structure in turn points to the inode. Since the open file table has a fixed length which is only setable at boot time, there is a fixed limit on the number of concurrently open files in a system. A.8 File-System Control Blocks A.9 3

4 Disk Structures The one file system that a user ordinarily sees may actually consist of several physical file systems, each on a different device. Partitioning a physical device into multiple file systems has several benefits. Different file systems can support different uses. Reliability is improved Can improve efficiency by varying file-system parameters. Prevents one program form using all available space for a large file. Speeds up searches on backup tapes and restoring partitions from tape. A.10 Disk Structures (Cont.) The root file system is always available on a drive. Other file systems may be mounted i.e., integrated into the directory hierarchy of the root file system. The following figure illustrates how a directory structure is partitioned into file systems, which are mapped onto logical devices, which are partitions of physical devices. A.11 Mapping File System to Physical Devices A.12 4

5 Implementations The user interface to the file system is simple and well defined, allowing the implementation of the file system itself to be changed without significant effect on the user. For Version 7, the size of inodes doubled, the maximum file and file system sized increased, and the details of free-list handling and superblock information changed. In 4.0BSD, the size of blocks used in the file system was increased form 512 bytes to 1024 bytes increased internal fragmentation, but doubled throughput. 4.2BSD added the Berkeley Fast File System, which increased speed, and included new features. New directory system calls truncate calls Fast File System found in most implementations of UNIX. A.13 Layout and Allocation Policy The kernel uses a <logical device number, inode number> pair to identify a file. The logical device number defines the file system involved. The inodes in the file system are numbered in sequence. 4.3BSD introduced the cylinder group allows localization of the blocks in a file. Each cylinder group occupies one or more consecutive cylinders of the disk, so that disk accesses within the cylinder group require minimal disk head movement. Every cylinder group has a superblock, a cylinder block, an array of inodes, and some data blocks. A BSD Cylinder Group A.15 5

6 File Systems To the user, Linux s file system appears as a hierarchical directory tree obeying UNIX semantics. Internally, the kernel hides implementation details and manages the multiple different file systems via an abstraction layer, that is, the virtual file system (VFS). The Linux VFS is designed around object-oriented principles and is composed of two components: A set of definitions that define what a file object is allowed to look like The inode-object and the file-object structures represent individual files the file system object represents an entire file system A layer of software to manipulate those objects. A.16 The Linux Ext2fs File System Ext2fs uses a mechanism similar to that of BSD Fast File System (ffs) for locating data blocks belonging to a specific file. The main differences between ext2fs and ffs concern their disk allocation policies. In ffs, the disk is allocated to files in blocks of 8Kb, with blocks being subdivided into fragments of 1Kb to store small files or partially filled blocks at the end of a file. Ext2fs does not use fragments; it performs its allocations in smaller units. The default block size on ext2fs is 1Kb, although 2Kb and 4Kb blocks are also supported. Ext2fs uses allocation policies designed to place logically adjacent blocks of a file into physically adjacent blocks on disk, so that it can submit an I/O request for several disk blocks as a single operation. A.17 Ext2fs Block-Allocation Policies A.18 6

7 File System di Windows 2000 La struttura fondamentale del file system di Windows 2000 (NTFS) è il volume. Creato dal programma di utilità disk administrator. Si basa su una partizione logica del disco. Può occupare una porzione di un disco, un intero disco, o spaziare su più dischi. Tutti i metadata, cioè le informazioni sul volume, sono memorizzate in un normale file. NTFS usa clusters (gruppi) come unità di allocazione del disco. Un cluster è un numero di settori del disco che è una potenza di 2. Siccome la dimensione del cluster è più piccola di quella del file system FAT a 16 bit, la frammentazione interna è ridotta. A.19 File System Struttura interna NTFS usa logical cluster numbers (LCNs) come indirizzi di disco. Un file in NTFS non è una semplice sequenza di byte, come in MS-DOS o UNIX, ma è un oggetto strutturato che consiste di attributi. Ogni file in NTFS è descritto da uno o più record in un vettore memorizzato in un file speciale chiamato Master File Table (MFT). Ogni file in un volume NTFS ha un ID univoco chiamato file reference. Valore a 64-bit suddiviso in 48-bit per numero file e 16-bit per numero di sequenza. Può essere usato per eseguire controlli di consistenza. Lo spazio dei nomi in NTFS è organizzato come una gerarchia di directory. A.20 File System Ripristino Tutte le modifiche alle strutture del file system sono eseguite come transazioni che vengono tracciate. Prima di alterare una struttura dati, la transazione scrive un record di log che contiene informazioni sull operazione da fare. Dopo che la struttura dati è stata modificata, viene scritto un record di commit per dire che la transazione ha avuto successo. Dopo un crash del sistema, le strutture dati del file system possono essere ripristinate ad uno stato consistente ripetendo le transazioni nel log. A.21 7

8 File System Ripristino (Cont.) Questo schema non garantisce che tutti i dati dell utente siano ripristinati dopo un crash, ma solo le strutture del file system sono riportate ad uno stato consistente che riflette una situazione stabile prima del crash. Il file di log è memorizato nel terzo file di metadati all inizio del volume. La funzionalità di log è fornita dal servizio di Windows 2000 log file service. A.22 File System Sicurezza La sicurezza su un volume NTFS è derivata dal modello ad oggetti di Windows Ogni oggetto di tipo file ha un attributo di sicurezza memorizzato nella Master File Table. Questo attributo contiene le informazioni di accesso del proprietario del fule, e una lista di accesso che elenca i privilegi di accessi che sono permessi a ciascun utente che accede al file. A.23 Gestione dei Volumi e Tolleranza ai guasti FtDisk, è il driver di disco tollerante ai guasti di 2000, e fornisce diversi modi per combinare i dischi in un unico volume logico. Un volume set è una concatenzaione logica di più dischi a formare un grande volume logico. Uno stripe set organizza più partizioni fisiche in maniera circolare (anche chiamato RAID di livello 0, o disk striping ). Variazione: stripe set with parity, o RAID livello 5. Disk mirroring, o RAID livello 1, è uno schema robusto che usa un mirror set : due partizioni di egual misura si due dischi diversi con identici contenuti. Per gestire malfunzionamenti, FtDisk, usa una tecnica hardware chiamata sector sparing e NTFS usa una ttecnica software chiamata cluster remapping. A.24 8

9 Volume Set On Two Drives A.25 Stripe Set on Two Drives A.26 Stripe Set With Parity on Three Drives A.27 9

10 Mirror Set on Two Drives A.28 File System Compression To compress a file, NTFS divides the file s data into compression units, which are blocks of 16 contiguous clusters. For sparse files, NTFS uses another technique to save space. Clusters that contain all zeros are not actually allocated or stored on disk. Instead, gaps are left in the sequence of virtual cluster numbers stored in the MFT entry for the file. When reading a file, if a gap in the virtual cluster numbers is found, NTFS just zero-fills that portion of the caller s buffer. A.29 File System Reparse Points A reparse point returns an error code when accessed. The reparse data tells the I/O manager what to do next. Reparse points can be used to provide the functionality of UNIX mounts Reparse points can also be used to access files that have been moved to offline storage. A.30 10