Il campione rappresentativo di lingue 1.1. Le possibili distorsioni i] distorsioni genetiche: un campione rappresentativo non deve dare eccessiva rappresentazione ad alcune famiglie linguistiche a scapito di altre. ii] distorsioni areali: un campione rappresentativo deve tenere conto del fatto che lingue non imparentate, ma parlate nel medesimo contesto geografico possono sviluppare tratti in comune in virtù dei contatti tra i rispettivi gruppi di parlanti iii] distorsioni tipologiche: un campione rappresentativo non deve apparire sbilanciato a favore di determinate configurazioni tipologiche a svantaggio di altre. iv] distorsioni legate alla consistenza numerica delle comunità parlanti: il rischio di incappare in distorsioni di questo tipo è davvero elevato, se si pensa che, delle 6000 lingue in uso oggi sulla Terra, circa 100 sono parlate da più dell 80% della popolazione umana. 1.2. Alcuni campioni di lingue 1.2.1. Greenberg (1962 e 1966) Lingue europee: basco, serbo, gallese, norvegese, greco moderno, italiano, finlandese Lingue africane: yoruba, nubico, swahili, fulani, masai, songhai, berbero Lingue asiatiche: turco, ebraico, burushaski, hindi, kannada, giapponese, tailandese, birmano, malese Lingue oceaniche: maori, loritja Lingue amerindiane: maya, zapoteco, quechua, chibcha, guaranti Questa campionatura è stata selezionata prevalentemente per convenienza. In generale, essa contiene lingue con cui avevo qualche previa familiarità o per cui potevo disporre di una grammatica ragionevolmente adeguata. I suoi difetti sono ovvi, quantunque si sia fatto un tentativo per raggiungere una «copertura» genetica e geografica più ampia possibile. (p. 117) J.. Greenberg (1962), ome Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements, in id. (ed.), Universals of Language, Cambridge (Mass.), MIT Press, pp. 73-113 (trad. it. (1976), Alcuni universali della grammatica con particolare riferimento all ordine degli elementi significativi, in P. Ramat (a cura di), La tipologia linguistica, Bologna, Il Mulino, pp. 115-154) 1.2.2. World Atlas of Language tructures Dal sito http://email.eva.mpg.de/~haspelmt/atlas.html (cfr. anche http://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/dryer/dryer/atlas%29) Language sample Ideally, the Atlas would describe the features in a set of languages that is uniform for all the chapters. ince this is very difficult to achieve, we have opted for a compromise model. There will be a core sample of 100 languages. We strongly recommend that authors provide data for these 100 languages, if at all possible. Beyond that, individual authors samples may diverge. owever, individual samples must be sufficiently large and representative. Authors should strive for a sample size of about 200 languages, though the absolute minimum, which may be acceptable for a few particularly difficult but interesting features, is 100 languages. More than 200 languages are of course always possible and welcome. In selecting the additional languages of their sample, authors should strive to choose languages more or less evenly from different families and geographical areas. The following numbers of languages from different areas in the 100-language core 1
sample may provide a general idea of what seems to be suitable proportions: Africa: 18; Europe and Mainland Asia: 25; Insular outheast Asia and Pacific, excluding New Guinea and Australia: 8; New Guinea: 9; Australia: 7; North America, including Mexico and Central America: 19; outh America: 14. The most important requirement is that no large area should be seriously underrepresented. For instance, a map with no Australian or no Mesoamerican language is unacceptable, even if it contains dozens of Papuan and Amazonian languages. Overrepresentation is acceptable in areas with low degree of language diversity or phylogenetic diversity, e.g. in northern Eurasia and Bantu Africa. A map with data for (say) wahili, Makua, Zulu, erero, Kinyarwanda, Duala and hona is acceptable even though it overrepresents Bantu, because otherwise southern Africa would look fairly empty. Likewise, authors should try not to include too many languages that are spoken in close vicinity, because these are difficult to represent on a word-wide map, and in such cases some languages may have to be excluded from the printed version. (For the CD-ROM version, so such limitation exists.) Geographical closeness need not be a major consideration for the six areas of the Caucasus, California, southern Mexico, southeastern Colombia, New Guinea and northern Australia, because inset maps will probably have to be necessary for these areas anyway. In addition to the 100-language sample, the editors propose an additional 100 languages that might be included in a 200-language sample for the Atlas, with the understanding that this additional list is only being included to assist authors who do not already have samples and who could benefit from suggestions as to what languages to include beyond the basic 100 languages. Appendix: The samples 100-Language ample: Abkhaz, Acoma, Alamblak, Amele, Apurina, Asmat, Bagirmi, Barasano, Basque, Bukiyip, Burmese, Burushaski, Canela-Kraho, Chalcatongo Mixtec, Chamorro, Chukchi, Copainala Zoque, Cree, Daga, Egyptian Arabic, English, Fijian, Finnish, French, Georgian, German, Gooniyandi, Grebo, Greek (Modern), Guarani, arar Oromo, ausa, ebrew, indi, ixkaryana, mong Njua, Imbabura Quechua, Imonda, Indonesian, Jakaltek, Japanese, Koyraboro enni onghay, Kannada, Karok, Kayardild, Kewa, Khalkha, Kiowa, Koasati, Korean, Krongo, Kutenai, Lakota, Lango, Lavukaleve, Lezgian, Lower Grand Valley Dani, Luvale, Makah, Malagasy, Mandarin Chinese, Mangarayi, Mapuche, Maricopa, Martuthunira, Mataco, Maung, Maybrat, Meithei, Nama (Khoekhoe), Ngiyambaa, Oneida, Otomi, Paiwan, Persian, Piraha, Rama, Rapanui, Russian, ango, anuma, lave, panish, upyire, wahili, Tagalog, Tamazight (Ayt Ndhir dialect), Thai, Tiwi, Tukang Besi, Turkish, Vietnamese, Warao, Wari, West Greenlandic, Wichita, Yagua, Yaqui, Yoruba, Zulu. Additional languages in 200-Language ample: Abipon, Ainu, Araona, Armenian, Awa Pit, Aymara, Bambara, Bawm, Beja, Brahui, Bribri, Cahuilla, Cambodian, Carib, Cayuvava, Coast Tsimshian, Comanche, Dehu, Diola-Fogny, Dongolese Nubian, Ekari, Epena Pedee, Evenki, Ewe, Fur, Garo, aida, anis Coos, ungarian, unzib, Igbo, Ika, Ingush, Iraqw, Irish, Kanuri, Kapau, Karo Batak, Kawesqar, Kayah Li, Kera, Ket, Khasi, Khmu, Kilivila, Kiribatese, Kobon, Kongo, Koromfe, Kunama, Ladakhi, Lak, Latvian, Lealao Chinantec, Lepcha, Maba, Maori, Maranungku, Marind, Mundari, Murle, Navajo, Ndyuka, Nenets, Nez Perce, Ngiti, Nivkh, Nkore-Kiga, Nunggubuyu, Paamese, Passamaquoddy, Paumari, Pitjantjatjara, elknam, emelai, entani, hipibo-konibo, ierra Miwok, outheastern Pomo, quamish, uena, Taba, Tetelcingo Nahuatl, Tlingit, Trumai, Tunica, Una, Ungarinjin, Urubu- Kaapor, Usan, Wambaya, Wardaman, Witoto, Yidiny, Yimas, Yuchi, Yukaghir, Yup'ik, Yurok,!Xu (Ju/'hoan). 2
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1.2.3. Dryer (1992) - 650 lingue Lingue suddivise in a) genera, raggruppamenti su base genetica con profondità temporale non superiore a 4000 anni. Ad es. la fase indoeuropea non è considerata: il genus italico (cioè romanzo) è considerato dunque come indipendente rispetto al genus germanico, esattamente come rispetto al genus ugrico (del quale fa parte tra gli altri l ungherese). Ogni genus vale uno nelle statistiche; il risultato è determinato dalla media tra i valori espressi da ogni lingua che di esso fa parte. b) sei macro-aree: i. Africa ii. Eurasia iii. Asia sudorientali e Oceania iv. Australia e Nuova Guinea v. Nord America (compreso il Messico) vi. ud America N.B. sono attestati fenomeni di contaminazione areale all interno di una singola macro-area, ma non paiono esistere fenomeni di contaminazione areale a scavalco tra due macro-aree. 4
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Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche 6
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche Il questionario Evaluative constructions in Mediterranean languages - Questionnaire Nicola Grandi Dept. of Linguistics Univ. of Pavia General instructions 1. ow to fill up the tables male female young cat eagle horse I IV II III In slot I you have to write how you say male cat, in slot II how you say female cat, in slot III how you say young cat, in slot IV how you say male eagle, and so on. 2. If a form or a sentence has no possible translation in your language, write it down. 3. Please, remember to specify the gender and the number of a word, when requested. 4. In some slots, you have three or four possible choices (see, for example, the slot n 3 in the table above): in some languages there can be different ways to express the same concept. In this case, please, write the synthetic forms before and then the analytic ones. For example, if your language has two possible ways to say young cat, both through an affix and an adjective, write the form with the affix before. If your language uses the word baby or the word for child to express the concept young (in forms such baby-killer), please write it down. In general, point out in the tables every particular construction (i.e. reduplicative constructions, particular modifiers, etc.). 5. In section 1), if there is a technical word to express the concept young X (i. e. calf for young cow, fawn for young deer, etc.), write it as the first choice. 7
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche 6. Translate the sentences in section 4b.) just if your language uses the same linguistic strategy to realize diminutives and singulative (i.e. italian gattino small cat / zuccherino lump of sugar ; berber t-afust: small hand / azmur olive trees > t-azmur-t an olive tree, etc.). 7. In section 4. the adjective real means ideal, prototypical. o, for example, real wine indicates some wine which identifies the ideal and prototypical characteristics of the best wine. 8
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche ow do you say it? 1) Animate Nouns: animals a. cat eagle horse form used to indicate the species male female young old 9
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche small big little 10
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche 11
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche bad good 12
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche Appendice A faccia a faccia 1 oggetto (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) 13
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche (10) (11) (12) faccia a faccia 3 oggetti (13) (14) (15) black white grey faccia a faccia la luna (16) (17) (18) moon? moon? moon? (19) (20) (21) di spalle 1 oggetto Where is the (22) (23) (24) 14
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche Look! The ball is Where is the Look! The ball is (25) (26) (27) di spalle 3 oggetti black white grey (28) (29) (30) Look! The black ball is Look! The white ball is Look! The grey ball is (31) (32) (33) di spalle la luna moon? moon? Look! The moon is (34) (35) (36) fianco a fianco 1 oggetto (37) (38) (39) 15
Corso di laurea magistrale in cienza antropologiche ed etnologiche (40) (41) (42) fianco a fianco 3 oggetti black white grey (43) (44) (45) fianco a fianco la luna moon? moon? moon? (46) (47) (48) 16