Le parti del discorso

PoS Tagging: assigning a word to a part of speech / to a syntactic category. PoS tagging (or word category disambiguation) is the process of marking up a word in a text / in a corpus as belonging to a particular part of speech / syntactic category, focusing - its definition -its formal behaviour So, Pos tagging implies that - we can define the notion of word - we can define the notion of part of speech - we can sketch a neat boundary between two parts of speech

Possible problems - A single word can represent more than one part of speech at different times (that is to say, in different contexts) - Some parts of speech are open categories, other parts of speech are closed categories -The cross linguistic diffusion of parts of speech is not homogeneous (for example, languages spoken in East and South East Asia are always supposed to lack Adjectives) - The formal properties of words belonging to a part of speech may vary cross-linguistically Etc

Part of speech - a typical definiton A part of speech (a word class, a lexical class, a lexical category, a syntactic category) is a class of words (or lexical items), which is generally defined by their syntactic or morphological behaviour. For example Noun: words inflected for case, number, gender, designating a concrete or abstract entity Verb: words without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone

Parts of speech and grammatical properties Gender Singular Dual Noun Number Trial Case Paucal Plural inclusive exclusive

Italian: Noun: words inflected for number and gender, designating a concrete or abstract entity English Noun: words inflected for number designating a concrete or abstract entity Latin Noun: words inflected for case, number, gender, designating a concrete or abstract entity

Italian: Noun: words inflected for number and gender, designating a concrete or abstract entity English Noun: words inflected for number designating a concrete or abstract entity Latin Noun: words inflected for case, number, gender, designating a concrete or abstract entity If we focus on syntactic or morphological behaviour, we can wonder whether Italian nouns, English nouns, and Latin nouns can be considered as members of the same class or not The traditional view of parts of speech reduces the importance of cross-linguistic comparison.

Problemi a livello intralinguistico STAMPAQuot: fece le ossa partecipando alle lotte operaie di Torino, quelle dei primi anni 6 STAMPAQuot: la posta alle tabacchine, le lotte operaie degli Anni Trenta. Cos ' è che non STAMPAPeri: un Mugello? " ), fino alle cinture operaie di Milano e Torino ; gli interrogat STAMPAPeri: le. In special modo, nelle società operaie e contadine l ' unione matrimoniale STAMPASupp: api in paglia e in feltro, assume 2 operaie esperte nel settore. Curriculum al NARRATRoma: re l ' alveare ad opera delle solite operaie o all ' agitare velocissimo delle a NARRATVari: importanza. In risposta alle lotte operaie e studentesche, alle manifestazion NARRATVari: parti sono nate le prime cooperative operaie, le università popolari, i movime NARRATTrVa: politicamente organizzati. Le masse operaie che facevano capo allo S.P.D. aveva PRACCRivis: ù di una decina di fuchi, mentre le operaie delle vespe polistine sono di solit PRACCRivis: a inibisce lo sviluppo ovarico delle operaie, rendendole per l ' appunto steril PRACCRivis: o dei telai, distribuiti nelle case operaie, e affidati alle donne che non lav PRACCVolum: studiato i rapporti tra le famiglie operaie, Petonnet le bande giovanili del s PRACCVolum: irando nel movimento stesso le masse operaie, scopo che non gli fu possibile ra PRACCVolum: agandisti e organizzatori di società operaie, emerse August Becker ( 1814-1871 PRACCVolum: ito, un ' inchiesta fra contadine e operaie tedesche della fine dell'800 rivela PRGAMMDocu: ivoluzionario e riflusso delle lotte operaie al fronte borghese costituito contr PRGAMMDocu: aziendali, a vantaggio delle altre operaie, che, egoisticamente non aderendo MISCVolumi: nuovo cambiamento nelle vecchie aree operaie dell ' immediata periferia : labora MISCVolumi: o senso ) dalle prime rivendicazioni operaie. Sul piano politico l ' adesione d EPHEMOpusc: nsioni per l ' allevamento delle api operaie e si inducono le famiglie a non cos MON2001_04: ssanta e Settanta, durante le lotte operaie e studentesche, e che si è poi for MON2005_07: poco gli operai e, ancor meno, le operaie. Regala - 261' " ' '??? ' - ' " MON2005_07: erta fuori_dal mio terreno, le zone operaie dove la questione era ormai la cres MON2005_07: miche, un mondo democratico dove le operaie sono tutte uguali tra loro e dove s MON2008_10: so che quanti provengono da famiglie operaie o artigiane tendono a vivere in cop

Parametri di classificazione rapporto tra i costituenti del composto presenza assenza della testa Bisetto & Scalise (2005: 326): composti subordinati attributivi/appositivi coordinativi endo. exo. endo. exo. endo. exo. trasporto rifiuti tritacarne pesce palla pellerossa studente lavoratore Emilia Romagna

Attributive compounds are formed either by a noun and an adjective, as in blue cheese (where the adjective expresses a property and is in a modifier relation to the noun) or by two nouns, where the non-head very often is used somehow metaphorically, expressing an attribute of the head (Bisetto / Scalise 2005: 327).

pesce spada / sword fish

pesce palla / globefish

Fiume river Riunione meeting Riunione fiume

literal meaning metaphorical extension fiume river long bomba bomb sensational lampo lightning quick chiave key crucial mosca fly small principe prince principal fantasma ghost evident, but not seen ombra shade parallel, alternative [[X]N fiume]n X = riunione, interrogatorio, processo, discorso, discussione, [[X]N bomba]n X = notizia, intervista, rivelazione [[X]N lampo]n X = processo, guerra, viaggio, operazione, recupero [[X]N chiave]n X = parola, ruolo, concetto, elemento, posizione [[X]N ombra]n X = governo, ministro

Dardano (1978: 184) : Quando si formano delle intere serie con lo stesso Dnte, quest ultimo tende a perdere ulteriormente la sua specificità semantica e a comportarsi quasi come un elemento suffissale Bauer (2005: 98) : The histories of many of the familiar and well-studied European languages give us a number of cases of compounds at one period of history becoming derivatives at a later period. [ ]. We find a particular word being used more and more frequently as a compound-element, perhaps to the extent that its use as a compound element is more frequent than its use as an independent word. In some of these cases the meaning which is observed in the compound instances is also distinct from the meaning which pertains when the word is used independently. I have two sets of examples of this stage, one from French, one from English. The French example set is the use of particular words in compounds, especially in journalistic styles. Specific instances are idée idea used as head element and choc shock or clef key used as modifying element [ ]: prix-choc shock price, idée cuisine cooking idea, mot clef key word.

Arcodia (2008: 46) la proprietà che una parola / morfema, o un accezione di una parola / morfema, deve avere per essere considerate di natura affissale sono, oltre alla rigidità posizionale, un significato più generico (o perlomeno non più specifico) di suoi eventuali usi liberi, che deve ripetersi stabile nelle sue diverse istanze It. ingegnere capo head engineer vs. capoufficio head clerk filosofo philosopher vs. bibliofilo bibliophile antropofilo anthropophilic vs. filantropo philanthropist

Heine, Claudi, Hünnemeyer (1991: 43) Both generalizing and isolating abstraction also appear to be present when grammaticalization is analyzed in terms of bleaching [ ]: lexemes become more abstract by losing their semantic specificities and by being increasingly reduced to their respective core meaning (generalizing abstraction) or to one particular part of their meaning (isolating abstraction). Abstraction of both types implies that its output is necessarily part of its input; that is, what happens in the course of grammaticalization is that concepts are merely reduced in their intensional content while their extension is increased

Alcune vitamine svolgono ruoli molto chiave nell equilibrio ormonale I Magic hanno pagato molta inesperienza, mi aspettavo un ruolo più chiave di Dwight Howard Un processo più fiume di ogni precedente, data la mole dei documenti e la massa che mobilita di figuranti e comparse Hai fatto una riunione talmente lampo che hai fatto tutto da solo! (da Internet)

Dopo una operazione lampo ed un recupero lampissimo, Baresi torna in campo per la partita più importante. Notizia bombissima! Priest Holmes si ritira? (da Internet) Quello che vede impegnato Van Nistelrooy è uno dei duelli chiavi della partita (La Repubblica) Quante parole chiavi usano gli utenti nelle ricerche? Ci sono sempre in mezzo i giochi politici, le ''notizie bombe'' Crollano Parigi, Londra, Berlino, Milano, Wall Street, sospese le quotazioni delle maggiori aziende, riunioni fiumi di governi e consigli di amministrazione (from Internet)

pesce spada > pesci spada / *pesci spade Ho sottolineato in tre colori (giallo punti esegetici importanti, arancio parole chiavissime, rosa le opere) tutte le 16 pagine che l'abbagnano-fornero, vecchia edizione, dedica a Galilei Telefonata fiume fiumissima... ah, sapeste!! (da internet)

Number agreement with the head noun Gender agreement with the head noun Comparative form Superlative form Adverb formation with -mente Occurrence in prenominal position Thornton (2004) They can agree in number with the head noun They can agree in gender with the head noun They can occur in comparative form They can occur in superlative form They occupy the syntactic slot usually assigned to adjectives They do not have a referential, but a descriptive function.

Croft, W. (1991), Syntactic categories and grammatical relations: The cognitive organization of information, Chicago, Chicago University Press. Croft, W. (2000), Parts of speech as language universals and as languageparticular categories, in Vogel, P. / Comrie, B. (eds.), Approaches to the Typology of Word Classes, Berlin New York, Mouton de Gruyter, 65-102. Visione tradizionale - Noun, verb and adjective are categories of particular languages. - But noun, verb and adjective are NOT language universals that is, there are NOT found in some languages. Croft (2000: 65) - Noun, verb and adjective are not categories of particular languages. - But noun, verb and adjective are language universals that is, there are typological prototypes [ ] which should be called noun, verb and adjective.

Croft (2000: 83): A proper theory of parts of speech that applies to all languages must satisfy the following three conditions in order to be successful. First, there must be a criterion for distinguishing parts of speech from other morphosyntactically defined subclasses. Second, there must be a cross-linguistically valid and uniform set of formal grammatical criteria for evaluating the universality of the parts-of-speech distinctions. Third there must be a clear distinction between language universals and particular language facts.

Defining parts of speech 1st level: Universal Focus on function Cross-linguistic perspective Different words are part of the same class if they perform the same function 2nd level: Particular language facts Focus on form Idio-linguistic perspective Different words are part of the same class if they perform the same function and share the same formal behaviour

Syntactic categories, including those commonly labelled as parts of speech, are derivative from constructions that define them (Croft 2000: 85) Constructions are the primitive elements of syntactic representation and categories are derived from them: it is a sample of different constructions with a common function that defines the boundaries of a category or of a part of speech. Typological comparison will sketch a pattern of variation and every single language will fit somewhere in this pattern of variation. This pattern of variation is defined by the combination of

Objects Three semantic classes Properties Actions Reference Three pragmatic functions Modification Predication

Funzione referenziale: individuazione di un entità nella realtà, referente concreto su cui poi verr`a detto qualcosa. Funzione predicativa: attribuzione di proprietà o azioni ad un referente Funzione modificativa: specificazione dell entità da designare per favorire l individuazione di un referente tra tutti quelli possibili

Croft (1991: 67) Reference Modification Predication Objects unmarked nouns genitive, adjectivalisations, PPs on nouns predicate nominals, copulas Properties deadjectival nouns unmarked adjectives Predicate adjectives, copulas Actions action nominals, complements, infinitives, gerunds participles, relative clauses unmarked verbs

The theory defines universal prototypes for the three major parts of speech, but does not define boundaries for these categories. Boundaries are aspects of language-particular grammatical categories, determined by distributional analysis The typological universals do not predict the exact behaviour of individual languages; rather, they predict that a language will fit somewhere in the pattern of variation allowed by typological marking theory (Croft, 1991) From universal prototypes to particular language facts function indicating morphosyntax distributional analysis

Quindi, ogni lessema ha una propensione intrinseca e interente a realizzarsi come N, V o ADJ in base alle sua semantica (e alla funzione pragmatica naturalmente associata ad essa): oggetto > referenzialità > morfologia nominale proprietà > modificazione > morfologia aggettivale azione > predicazione > morfologia verbale In base a questa propensione, nel passaggio dal livello astratto (lessema) a quello concreto (forma flessa), le parole ricevono la morfologia prototipica di una specifica parte del discorso A livello interlinguistico non paiono attestate lingue in cui l assegnazione della morfologia flessiva avvenga sistematicamente in controtendenza rispetto alla semantica ed alla conseguente funzione pragmatica.

Ovviamente Nome Aggettivo Verbo Italiano Inglese Cinese

ADJECTIVE Modification by property Italian Latin English Gender X X Agreement Number X X Case X Adv formation X X X Superlative Syntetic X X X Analytic X X X Comparative Syntetic X X Analytic X X X

The universal-typological theory of parts of speech embraces constructions with and without function-indicating morphosyntax. Function-indicating morphosyntax overtly encodes the functions of reference, predication and modification for various classes of lexical items. As such, function-indicating morphosyntax falls under the structural coding criterion of the theory of typological markedness. The theory of typological markedness [ ] is a general theory of the relationship between form and meaning across languages The theory defines universal prototypes for the three major parts of speech, but does not define boundaries for these categories. Boundaries are aspects of language-particular grammatical categories, determined by distributional analysis The typological universals do not predict the exact behaviour of individual languages; rather, they predict that a language will fit somewhere in the pattern of variation allowed by typological marking theory

Moreover, the terms verb and adjective do not describe language-particular grammatical categories anyway. They describe cross-linguistic patterns of variation. In particular they describe a prototype. A prototype describes the core of a category; it does not say anything about the boundary of a category [ ]. In fact, the universal typological theory of parts of speech defines only prototypes for the parts of speech; it does not define boundaries. Boundaries are features of language-particular categories. Noun > reference to an object Adjective > modification by a property Verb > predication of an action The function of modification is to create a new, ad hoc, opportunistic category that fits the speaker s idea more closely (Chafe 2012: 5)

In such a theoretical framework, we cannot exclude cases of multiple class membership and of sporadic occurrence of linguistic constructions in atypical roles. Croft (2000: 96) it is quite common cross-linguistically to find a lexical item used in more than one pragmatic function without overt derivation but with a significant and often systematic semantic shift [ ]. The relevant cross-linguistic universal is that these shifts are always towards the semantic class prototypically associated with the pragmatic function The behavioural potential criterion specifies that the unmarked member displays at least as wide a range of grammatical behaviour as the marked member. The behavioural potential criterion is again formulated as an implicational universal. It allows for the possibility of marked members [ ] to have the same inflectional possibilities as unmarked members [ ] in some language. It excludes the possibility of marked members having more inflectional possibilities than unmarked members. The behavioural potential criterion also allows for the limited or defective behaviour of the marked member of a category [ ] without having to commit to the marked member being in or not in the category in a universaltypological sense.